Ecosyste.ms: Repos

An open API service providing repository metadata for many open source software ecosystems.

GitHub topics: adversarial-defense

emaballarin/CARSO

๐Ÿ‘€๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Code for the paper โ€œCarefully Blending Adversarial Training and Purification Improves Adversarial Robustnessโ€ by Emanuele Ballarin, Alessio Ansuini and Luca Bortolussi (2024)

Language: Python - Size: 18.6 KB - Last synced: about 8 hours ago - Pushed: about 10 hours ago - Stars: 3 - Forks: 0

chs20/RobustVLM

[ICML 2024] Unsupervised Adversarial Fine-Tuning of Vision Embeddings for Robust Large Vision-Language Models

Language: Python - Size: 10.2 MB - Last synced: about 13 hours ago - Pushed: 7 days ago - Stars: 51 - Forks: 3

Verified-Intelligence/auto_LiRPA

auto_LiRPA: An Automatic Linear Relaxation based Perturbation Analysis Library for Neural Networks and General Computational Graphs

Language: Python - Size: 32.4 MB - Last synced: 11 days ago - Pushed: about 1 month ago - Stars: 265 - Forks: 65

jh-jeong/smoothing-multiscale

Code for the paper "Multi-scale Diffusion Denoised Smoothing" (NeurIPS 2023)

Language: Python - Size: 4.25 MB - Last synced: 23 days ago - Pushed: 23 days ago - Stars: 5 - Forks: 0

davide97l/rl-policies-attacks-defenses

Adversarial attacks on Deep Reinforcement Learning (RL)

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 346 MB - Last synced: 25 days ago - Pushed: about 3 years ago - Stars: 72 - Forks: 12

yuvalofek/DefensiveLayer

Defending Against Adversarial Attacks One Layer at a Time

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 72.9 MB - Last synced: about 1 month ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 1

thunlp/TAADpapers

Must-read Papers on Textual Adversarial Attack and Defense

Language: Python - Size: 173 KB - Last synced: about 1 month ago - Pushed: about 1 month ago - Stars: 1,450 - Forks: 192

nebula-beta/awesome-adversarial-deep-learning

A list of awesome resources for adversarial attack and defense method in deep learning

Size: 150 KB - Last synced: 4 days ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 128 - Forks: 11

s-kumano/simple-adversarial-example-code

Simple code related to adversarial examples, attacks, and defenses.

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 66.4 MB - Last synced: about 2 months ago - Pushed: about 2 months ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 0

microsoft/denoised-smoothing

Provably defending pretrained classifiers including the Azure, Google, AWS, and Clarifai APIs

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 21.6 MB - Last synced: about 2 months ago - Pushed: about 3 years ago - Stars: 94 - Forks: 17

EdisonLeeeee/GUARD

[CIKM 2023] GUARD: Graph Universal Adversarial Defense

Language: Python - Size: 7.1 MB - Last synced: 3 months ago - Pushed: 3 months ago - Stars: 7 - Forks: 2

cdluminate/robrank

Adversarial Attack and Defense in Deep Ranking, T-PAMI, 2024

Language: Python - Size: 435 KB - Last synced: 3 months ago - Pushed: 3 months ago - Stars: 19 - Forks: 2

lionelmessi6410/awesome-real-world-adversarial-examples

๐Ÿ˜Ž A curated list of awesome real-world adversarial examples resources

Size: 456 KB - Last synced: 4 days ago - Pushed: almost 4 years ago - Stars: 53 - Forks: 10

fanghenshaometeor/DIversity-via-Orthogonality

Code for the paper "Towards Robust Neural Networks via Orthogonal Diversity"

Language: Python - Size: 938 KB - Last synced: 4 months ago - Pushed: 4 months ago - Stars: 2 - Forks: 0

Kahsolt/Retreaval-based-Adversarial-Defense

Adversarial defense by retreaval-based methods

Language: Python - Size: 283 KB - Last synced: 3 months ago - Pushed: 3 months ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 0

MJavaadAkhtar/Adversarial-training

A modified model for self-driving car that is resilient to adversarial attacks

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 413 MB - Last synced: 5 months ago - Pushed: 5 months ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 1

Harry24k/catastrophic-overfitting

Understanding Catastrophic Overfitting in Single-step Adversarial Training [AAAI 2021]

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 106 MB - Last synced: 4 months ago - Pushed: almost 2 years ago - Stars: 26 - Forks: 1

wkim97/FSR

Feature Separation and Recalibration (CVPR 2023 Highlights)

Language: Python - Size: 62.5 KB - Last synced: 5 months ago - Pushed: 5 months ago - Stars: 18 - Forks: 4

khalooei/Robustness-framework

An efficient framework for establishing baselines in standard and adversarial machine learning training projects

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 627 KB - Last synced: 8 days ago - Pushed: 6 months ago - Stars: 1 - Forks: 1

tao-bai/attack-and-defense-methods

A curated list of papers on adversarial machine learning (adversarial examples and defense methods).

Language: TeX - Size: 17.4 MB - Last synced: 6 months ago - Pushed: almost 2 years ago - Stars: 197 - Forks: 25

khalooei/LSA

LSA : Layer Sustainability Analysis framework for the analysis of layer vulnerability in a given neural network. LSA can be a helpful toolkit to assess deep neural networks and to extend the adversarial training approaches towards improving the sustainability of model layers via layer monitoring and analysis.

Language: Python - Size: 33.8 MB - Last synced: 8 days ago - Pushed: about 2 years ago - Stars: 14 - Forks: 6

nis-research/dfmX-augmentation

Augmentation for CV using frequency shortcuts

Language: Python - Size: 257 KB - Last synced: 10 days ago - Pushed: 9 months ago - Stars: 2 - Forks: 0

Bai-YT/AdaptiveSmoothing

Implementation of the paper "Improving the Accuracy-Robustness Trade-off of Classifiers via Adaptive Smoothing".

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 1.6 MB - Last synced: 4 months ago - Pushed: 4 months ago - Stars: 6 - Forks: 0

Mishne-Lab/SOAP

Implementation of Self-supervised-Online-Adversarial-Purification

Language: Python - Size: 101 MB - Last synced: 5 months ago - Pushed: almost 3 years ago - Stars: 11 - Forks: 1

AI-secure/InfoBERT

[ICLR 2021] "InfoBERT: Improving Robustness of Language Models from An Information Theoretic Perspective" by Boxin Wang, Shuohang Wang, Yu Cheng, Zhe Gan, Ruoxi Jia, Bo Li, Jingjing Liu

Language: Python - Size: 72.3 KB - Last synced: 7 months ago - Pushed: 7 months ago - Stars: 81 - Forks: 6

YonghaoXu/SACNet

[IEEE TIP 2021] Self-Attention Context Network: Addressing the Threat of Adversarial Attacks for Hyperspectral Image Classification

Language: Python - Size: 2.37 MB - Last synced: 7 months ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 27 - Forks: 4

GuanlinLee/CCNAMS

Improving Adversarial Robustness of 3D Point Cloud Classification Models (ECCV2022)

Language: Python - Size: 76.2 KB - Last synced: 3 months ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 6 - Forks: 0

Hadisalman/smoothing-adversarial

Code for our NeurIPS 2019 *spotlight* "Provably Robust Deep Learning via Adversarially Trained Smoothed Classifiers"

Language: Python - Size: 32.9 MB - Last synced: 7 months ago - Pushed: over 4 years ago - Stars: 219 - Forks: 38

ForeverPs/Robust-Classification

CVPR 2022 Workshop Robust Classification

Language: Python - Size: 145 MB - Last synced: 4 months ago - Pushed: almost 2 years ago - Stars: 94 - Forks: 3

jh-jeong/smoothmix

Code for the paper "SmoothMix: Training Confidence-calibrated Smoothed Classifiers for Certified Robustness" (NeurIPS 2021)

Language: Roff - Size: 16.8 MB - Last synced: 7 months ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 20 - Forks: 3

lanl/AdversarialTensors

Tensors-based framework for adversarial robustness

Language: Python - Size: 4.68 MB - Last synced: 8 months ago - Pushed: 8 months ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 0

harry-kav/LittleAdversary

LittleAdversary is an adversarial machine learning library made to aid research into adversarial attacks and defences, with a primary focus on one-shot defences. It contains an end-to-end implementation of the proposed defence in 'Siamese Neural Networks for Adversarial Robustness ', complete with statistical analysis of the results.

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 525 MB - Last synced: 9 months ago - Pushed: 9 months ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 0

cornell-zhang/GARNET

GARNET: Reduced-Rank Topology Learning for Robust and Scalable Graph Neural Networks

Language: Python - Size: 16.3 MB - Last synced: 8 months ago - Pushed: 8 months ago - Stars: 31 - Forks: 0

tangxianfeng/PA-GNN

Implementation of paper "Transferring Robustness for Graph Neural Network Against Poisoning Attacks".

Language: Python - Size: 74.2 KB - Last synced: 9 months ago - Pushed: about 4 years ago - Stars: 19 - Forks: 4

huanzhang12/CROWN-IBP

Certified defense to adversarial examples using CROWN and IBP. Also includes GPU implementation of CROWN verification algorithm (in PyTorch).

Language: Python - Size: 88.9 KB - Last synced: 9 months ago - Pushed: almost 3 years ago - Stars: 87 - Forks: 13

u1234x1234/kdd2020-graph-adversarial-attacks-defence

6th place solution to KDD CUP 2020 Graph Adversarial Attacks & Defense

Language: Python - Size: 275 KB - Last synced: 10 months ago - Pushed: over 3 years ago - Stars: 2 - Forks: 0

Shorya-Sharma/Game-Theory-For-Adversarial-Attacks-And-Defenses

This repo contains the code for the preprint 'Game Theory for Adversarial Attacks and Defenses' (https://arxiv.org/abs/2110.06166v2)

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 7.19 MB - Last synced: 10 months ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 3 - Forks: 0

MKYucel/adversarial_robustness_zsl

[ECCV 2020 AROW Workshop] A Deep Dive into Adversarial Robustness in Zero-Shot Learning

Language: Python - Size: 7.52 MB - Last synced: 10 months ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 6 - Forks: 0

dvlab-research/LBGAT

Learnable Boundary Guided Adversarial Training (ICCV2021)

Language: Python - Size: 906 KB - Last synced: 11 months ago - Pushed: 11 months ago - Stars: 29 - Forks: 2

git-disl/FUSE

Robust Object Detection Fusion Against Deception

Language: Python - Size: 256 KB - Last synced: 12 months ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 1 - Forks: 0

as791/Adversarial-Example-Attack-and-Defense

This repository contains the implementation of three adversarial example attack methods FGSM, IFGSM, MI-FGSM and one Distillation as defense against all attacks using MNIST dataset.

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 1.71 MB - Last synced: 12 months ago - Pushed: over 3 years ago - Stars: 84 - Forks: 21

csce585-mlsystems/project-athena

This is the course project for CSCE585: ML Systems. Students will build their machine learning systems based on the provided infrastructure --- Athena.

Language: Python - Size: 3.97 GB - Last synced: 12 months ago - Pushed: over 3 years ago - Stars: 13 - Forks: 20

as791/NOMARO_defense

Official Implementation of Paper "NOMARO: Defending against Adversarial Attacks by NOMA-Inspired Reconstruction Operation"

Language: Python - Size: 498 KB - Last synced: 12 months ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 1 - Forks: 0

SEC4SR/SEC4SR

Source Code for 'SECurity evaluation platform FOR Speaker Recognition' released in 'Defending against Audio Adversarial Examples on Speaker Recognition Systems'

Language: Python - Size: 152 KB - Last synced: 12 months ago - Pushed: 12 months ago - Stars: 22 - Forks: 15

nthu-datalab/Runtime-Masking-and-Cleansing

Code for "Adversarial Robustness via Runtime Masking and Cleansing" (ICML 2020)

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 2.48 MB - Last synced: 5 months ago - Pushed: about 1 year ago - Stars: 8 - Forks: 0

Rive-001/counterGAN

Adversarial Defense using Generative Adversarial Networks

Language: Python - Size: 622 MB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: about 3 years ago - Stars: 1 - Forks: 1

adverML/SpectralDef_Framework

Is RobustBench/AutoAttack a suitable Benchmark for Adversarial Robustness?

Language: Python - Size: 237 KB - Last synced: 6 months ago - Pushed: about 2 years ago - Stars: 10 - Forks: 3

craymichael/unfooling

[AAAI'23 Paper] A machine learning defense for auditors of black box automated decision-making systems.

Language: Python - Size: 1.19 MB - Last synced: 12 months ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 2 - Forks: 0

safreita1/unmask

Adversarial detection and defense for deep learning systems using robust feature alignment

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 34.3 MB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 3 years ago - Stars: 10 - Forks: 4

pedromsferraz/AdversarialTrainingVsPatchAttacks

Evaluating the Use of Fast Adversarial Training in Defending Against Adversarial Patch Attacks

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 255 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 0

sayakpaul/Denoised-Smoothing-TF

Minimal implementation of Denoised Smoothing (https://arxiv.org/abs/2003.01908) in TensorFlow.

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 12.8 MB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: almost 3 years ago - Stars: 20 - Forks: 1

mnswdhw/DefenseGAN-and-Cowboy-Defense

This repository implements the two popular defense architectures DefenseGAN and Cowboy that leverage GAN to protect classifiers against test time evasive adversarial attacks

Language: Python - Size: 873 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 4 - Forks: 2

CEA-LIST/adv-reid

Metric Adversarial Attacks and Defense

Language: Python - Size: 81.1 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 15 - Forks: 2

cdluminate/advrank

Adversarial Ranking Attack and Defense, ECCV, 2020.

Language: Python - Size: 55.5 MB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 23 - Forks: 5

emaballarin/RADLER ๐Ÿ“ฆ

[Partial] RADLER: (adversarially) Robust Adversarial Distributional LEaRner

Language: Python - Size: 225 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: almost 4 years ago - Stars: 2 - Forks: 0

sukrutrao/Adversarial-Patch-Training

Code for the paper: Adversarial Training Against Location-Optimized Adversarial Patches. ECCV-W 2020.

Language: Python - Size: 53.7 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 33 - Forks: 8

cuge1995/NeurIPS-2021-adversarial-attacks-and-defense-

NeurIPS 2021 papers and code focus on adversarial attacks and defense

Size: 2.93 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 4 - Forks: 0

rshaojimmy/OSAD

[ECCV 2020] Pytorch codes for Open-set Adversarial Defense

Language: Python - Size: 562 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: about 2 years ago - Stars: 15 - Forks: 2

cuge1995/U6DA

official Pytorch implementation of paper 'Adversarial samples for deep monocular 6D object pose estimation'

Size: 4.88 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: almost 2 years ago - Stars: 6 - Forks: 0

jh-jeong/smoothing-consistency

Code for the paper "Consistency Regularization for Certified Robustness of Smoothed Classifiers" (NeurIPS 2020)

Language: Python - Size: 13.4 MB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 3 years ago - Stars: 28 - Forks: 3

divyam3897/MNG_AC

Code for the paper "Learning to Generate Noise for Multi-Attack Robustness" (ICML 2021)

Language: Python - Size: 507 KB - Last synced: 10 days ago - Pushed: almost 3 years ago - Stars: 8 - Forks: 2

elliothe/CVPR_2019_PNI

pytorch implementation of Parametric Noise Injection for adversarial defense

Language: Python - Size: 838 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 4 years ago - Stars: 37 - Forks: 16

philippnormann/adversarial-recsys

๐Ÿ“• Adversarial Attacks and Defenses for Image-Based Recommendation Systems using Deep Neural Networks.

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 132 MB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 3 years ago - Stars: 10 - Forks: 1

AristiPap/Adversarial_ML_Research

:computer: :bulb: Bachelor's Thesis on Adversarial Machine Learning Attacks and Defences

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 168 MB - Last synced: 10 months ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 13 - Forks: 0

wunderwuzzi23/mlattacks

Machine Learning Attack Series

Size: 17.6 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 35 - Forks: 1

ZikangXiong/rl-detect-and-denoise-defense

[ECML 22'] Defending Observation Attacks in Deep Reinforcement Learning via Detection and Denoising

Language: Python - Size: 33.2 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: almost 2 years ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 0

akash13singh/resilient_nlp

MockingBERT: Making Transformer Models Resilient to Adversarial Misspellings

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 5.01 MB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: almost 2 years ago - Stars: 3 - Forks: 1

cdluminate/robdml

Enhancing Adversarial Robustness for Deep Metric Learning, CVPR, 2022

Language: Python - Size: 15.4 MB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 17 - Forks: 1

CEA-LIST/adv-sat

Sinkhorn Adversarial Training (SAT): Optimal Transport as a Defense Against Adversarial Attacks

Language: Python - Size: 104 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: about 3 years ago - Stars: 7 - Forks: 2

jfc43/eval-transductive-robustness

Exploring evaluating the adversarial robustness of transductive-learning based defenses.

Language: Python - Size: 74.2 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 4 - Forks: 1

rshaojimmy/OSDN-CAML

[IJCV 2022] Pytorch codes for Open-set Adversarial Defense with Clean-Adversarial Mutual Learning

Language: Python - Size: 236 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: about 2 years ago - Stars: 4 - Forks: 0

xintaoding/Cons-Def

Consensus Adversarial Defense Method Based on Augmented Examples

Language: Python - Size: 627 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: almost 2 years ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 0

tkuo-tkuo/ML-Security-in-Computer-Vision-System

Final Year Thesis Project (COMP4981H) for Computer Science Students in HKUST

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 295 MB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 3 years ago - Stars: 1 - Forks: 0

mnswdhw/InvGAN-Pytorch

This repository implements the Invgan defense architecture in Pytorch. InvGAN acts as an initialisation for DefenseGAN and can help in State of the Art robustness of target models against adversarial attacks.

Language: Python - Size: 1020 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 2 years ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 0

AISIGSJTU/SEBR

Robust Bayesian Neural Networks by Spectral Expectation Bound Regularization

Language: Python - Size: 1.69 MB - Last synced: 2 days ago - Pushed: almost 3 years ago - Stars: 4 - Forks: 2

snu-mllab/preemptive-robustification

Official PyTorch implementation of "Preemptive Image Robustification for Protecting Users against Man-in-the-Middle Adversarial Attacks" (AAAI 2022)

Language: Python - Size: 76.2 KB - Last synced: 8 months ago - Pushed: 8 months ago - Stars: 2 - Forks: 2

SEC4SR/sec4sr.github.com

Official webpage for the paper 'Defending against Audio Adversarial Examples on Speaker Recognition Systems'.

Size: 4.53 MB - Last synced: 12 months ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 2 - Forks: 1

fordevoted/NTU-1091-SPML-Adversarial_Defense

Language: Python - Size: 423 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: about 3 years ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 0

dmitrykazhdan/GP-DNN-Hybrids

Using Gaussian Processes for Deep Neural Network Predictive Uncertainty Estimation

Language: Python - Size: 537 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: about 5 years ago - Stars: 2 - Forks: 0

rzhangpku/DBA

Source code for ESORICS 2020 paper "Detection by attack: Detecting adversarial samples by undercover attack"

Language: Python - Size: 18.6 KB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: about 3 years ago - Stars: 1 - Forks: 0

anas-awadalla/Incepto

Out of Distributon Detector Agnostic Framework for Medical Model Interpretability.

Language: Jupyter Notebook - Size: 230 MB - Last synced: about 1 year ago - Pushed: over 1 year ago - Stars: 3 - Forks: 0

smallflyingpig/adversarial_attack_and_defense

some examples for adversarial attack and defense with pytorch

Language: Python - Size: 9.77 KB - Last synced: 12 months ago - Pushed: over 3 years ago - Stars: 0 - Forks: 0

Related Keywords
adversarial-defense 82 adversarial-attacks 46 adversarial-machine-learning 28 deep-learning 22 adversarial-examples 14 pytorch 12 adversarial-training 11 robustness 11 machine-learning 11 adversarial-robustness 9 neural-networks 6 computer-vision 6 neural-network 5 deep-neural-networks 5 tensorflow 4 randomized-smoothing 4 generative-adversarial-network 3 adversarial-learning 3 robust-machine-learning 3 metric-learning 3 python 3 security 3 adversarial-example 3 graph-neural-networks 3 deep-metric-learning 2 dgl 2 image-classification 2 adversarial-attack-and-defense 2 nlp 2 ranking 2 bert 2 roberta 2 open-set-recognition 2 classification 2 neurips-2021 2 speaker-identification 2 speaker-recognition 2 speaker-verification 2 convolutional-neural-networks 2 adversarial-detection 2 ml 2 artificial-intelligence 2 robustness-verification 2 ibp-bounds 2 ai 2 deep-reinforcement-learning 2 xai 1 cognitive-computing 1 data-mining 1 artificial-neural-networks 1 denoised-randomized-smoothing 1 vision 1 metric-adversarial-attacks 1 re-identification 1 eccv-2020 1 aicps-units 1 bachelor-thesis 1 distributional-learning 1 minimax 1 adversarial-patches 1 6d 1 6dof-pose 1 pose-estimation 1 neurips2020 1 google-cloud-vision 1 attack 1 defense 1 distillation 1 fgsm 1 mi-fgsm 1 pytorch-implementation 1 temperature 1 machine-learning-systems 1 noma 1 variational-method 1 variational-autoencoder 1 neuro-inspired 1 neural-representations 1 icml-2020 1 robust-learning 1 tensorflow2 1 neural-representation 1 anomaly-detection 1 conditional-anomaly-detection 1 post-hoc-explanation 1 trustworthy-ai 1 mutual-learning 1 consensus-defense 1 python3 1 layer-provenance 1 machine-learning-security 1 gan 1 bayesian-neural-networks 1 dnn 1 ensemble 1 gaussian-processes 1 gp-dnn 1 gpc-models 1 hybrid-models 1 predictive-uncertainty 1